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what happens to the human body at absolute zero

Lowest attainable temperature

Zero kelvin (−273.15 °C) is defined every bit accented zero.

Absolute nix is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a land at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as nada kelvin. The key particles of nature take minimum vibrational motility, retaining merely quantum mechanical, aught-bespeak energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas constabulary; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.xv degrees on the Celsius calibration (International Organisation of Units),[1] [2] [3] which equals −459.67 degrees on the Fahrenheit calibration (United States customary units or Regal units).[4] The respective Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zippo points at accented zero by definition.

Information technology is commonly thought of every bit the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest enthalpy state possible, because all real substances brainstorm to depart from the platonic gas when cooled as they arroyo the modify of land to liquid, and so to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's modify in enthalpy to absolute zilch. In the quantum-mechanical description, affair (solid) at absolute zero is in its basis country, the signal of lowest internal energy.

The laws of thermodynamics betoken that absolute zero cannot be reached using merely thermodynamic ways, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically,[5] and a organization at absolute zero even so possesses quantum mechanical zero-indicate free energy, the free energy of its ground land at absolute zero. The kinetic free energy of the ground state cannot exist removed.

Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures shut to absolute zero, where affair exhibits quantum effects such as Bose–Einstein condensate, superconductivity and superfluidity.

Thermodynamics near accented nix [edit]

At temperatures nigh 0 K (−273.15 °C; −459.67 °F), well-nigh all molecular motion ceases and ΔS = 0 for any adiabatic process, where South is the entropy. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals with no structural imperfections equally T → 0. Max Planck'southward stiff course of the tertiary police force of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy alter for any isothermal procedure approaches zilch as T → 0:

lim T → 0 Δ Due south = 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{T\to 0}\Delta S=0}

The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches a abiding value. An adiabat is a country with constant entropy, typically represented on a graph as a curve in a manner like to isotherms and isobars.

The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T = 0 every bit coincident with the adiabat S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no ii adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189–190)

A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect gild can be represented by translational symmetry forth three (non usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the construction is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zip entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.

Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and fifty-fifty unabridged amorphous material inclusions, can and do go "frozen in" at low temperatures, then transitions to more than stable states do non occur.

Using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T  3, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T  4. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their T = 0 limiting values and approach with nil slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely naught, equally borne out by experiments to beneath ten K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drib in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute goose egg, non just those of crystals. Too for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell's relations evidence that various other quantities as well vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated.

Since the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy (G), the enthalpy (H) and the entropy is

Δ G = Δ H − T Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta Chiliad=\Delta H-T\Delta S\,}

thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other (so long as ΔS is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) upshot in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilibrium. If ΔS and/or T are pocket-sized, the status ΔG < 0 may imply that ΔH < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. Still, this is not required; endothermic reactions tin go along spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough.

Moreover, the slopes of the derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T = 0. This ensures that ΔGrand and ΔH are about the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that the equilibrium land to which a organization gain is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat, i.e., an actual process is the almost exothermic ane. (Callen, pp. 186–187)

One model that estimates the backdrop of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas. The electrons, being fermions, must be in different breakthrough states, which leads the electrons to get very loftier typical velocities, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can accept at absolute nil is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is divers every bit this maximum energy divided past Boltzmann'south abiding, and is on the guild of 80,000 K for typical electron densities institute in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons comport in almost the same way as at accented zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the tardily 19th century.

Relation with Bose–Einstein condensate [edit]

Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms at a temperature within a few billionths of a degree above absolute naught. Left: just before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate. Center: but subsequently the appearance of the condensate. Right: later further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate.

A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of thing of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons bars in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very most absolute zero. Under such atmospheric condition, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point breakthrough effects go apparent on a macroscopic scale.[6]

This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the breakthrough statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which published it. Einstein and so extended Bose's ideas to material particles (or thing) in two other papers.[7]

Seventy years after, in 1995, the commencement gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the Academy of Colorado at Boulder NIST-JILA lab, using a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvin (nK)[8] ( 1.vii×x−vii M).[9]

A tape common cold temperature of 450 ± 80 picokelvin (pK) ( iv.5×x−10 Thousand) in a BEC of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 past researchers at Massachusetts Plant of Technology (MIT).[x] The associated blackness-body (meridian emittance) wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of World.

Absolute temperature scales [edit]

Absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature is conventionally measured in kelvin (Celsius-scaled increments) and in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit-scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined past a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the degree, and then the ratios of two absolute temperatures, T two/T ane, are the same in all scales. The about transparent definition of this standard comes from the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. It can as well be found in Fermi–Dirac statistics (for particles of half-integer spin) and Bose–Einstein statistics (for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over kT, with k representing the Boltzmann abiding and T representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level.[1]

Negative temperatures [edit]

Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Sure systems can reach truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) tin can be of a negative quantity. A arrangement with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute nothing. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than whatever system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, estrus flows from the negative to the positive-temperature organisation.[11]

Most familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because calculation energy e'er increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can concur, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the human relationship between energy and entropy, such a organisation's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is beingness added.[11] As a upshot, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state free energy. Therefore, no complete organization, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can accept negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy country,[ citation needed ] so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (eastward.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable.

On 3 January 2013, physicists announced that for the kickoff time they had created a breakthrough gas fabricated up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom.[12]

History [edit]

One of the kickoff to hash out the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Common cold, articulated the dispute known every bit the primum frigidum.[13] The concept was well known amid naturalists of the fourth dimension. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the iv classical elements), others inside water, others air, and some more than recently inside nitre. But all of them seemed to concur that, "In that location is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely common cold and past participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality."[14]

Limit to the "degree of cold" [edit]

The question whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the nil must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air thermometer. His musical instrument indicated temperatures past the elevation at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury—the volume, or "spring" of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the goose egg of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing. He used a scale that marked the boiling point of water at +73 and the melting point of ice at +51+ i⁄2 , then that the nil was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale.[xv] Amontons held that the absolute zero cannot be reached, then never attempted to compute it explicitly.[16] The value of −240 °C, or "431 divisions [in Fahrenheit's thermometer] beneath the cold of freezing h2o"[17] was published past George Martine in 1740.

This close approximation to the modernistic value of −273.fifteen °C[i] for the zero of the air thermometer was farther improved upon in 1779 past Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that −270 °C (−454.00 °F; 3.fifteen One thousand) might exist regarded as absolute cold.[xviii]

Values of this order for the absolute zero were non, nonetheless, universally accustomed near this catamenia. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on rut, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to iii,000 below the freezing bespeak of water, and thought that in any case it must exist at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −three,000 °C as the natural cypher of temperature.

Lord Kelvin's work [edit]

After James Prescott Joule had adamant the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely unlike point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the backdrop of any particular substance and was based on Carnot's theory of the Motive Ability of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault.[19] It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its naught was placed at −273 °C, at most precisely the same indicate every bit the zero of the air thermometer.[15] This value was non immediately accepted; values ranging from −271.one °C (−455.98 °F) to −274.5 °C (−462.x °F), derived from laboratory measurements and observations of astronomical refraction, remained in use in the early 20th century.[20]

The race to accented zero [edit]

Commemorative plaque in Leiden

With a better theoretical agreement of accented zippo, scientists were eager to achieve this temperature in the lab.[21] By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new tape for lowest temperatures by reaching −130 °C (−202 °F; 143 K). Faraday believed that certain gases, such every bit oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, were permanent gases and could non exist liquefied.[22] Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, only only under conditions of very loftier pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the outset droplets of liquid air −195 °C (−319.0 °F; 78.one G). This was followed in 1883 past the production of liquid oxygen −218 °C (−360.four °F; 55.one M) by the Smoothen professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.

Scottish chemist and physicist James Dewar and Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases, hydrogen and helium. In 1898, after twenty years of effort, Dewar was kickoff to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new depression-temperature record of −252 °C (−421.half-dozen °F; 21.1 K). Nevertheless, Kamerlingh Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the Hampson–Linde cycle. He lowered the temperature to the boiling betoken of helium −269 °C (−452.20 °F; 4.15 Chiliad). By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium he achieved an even lower temperature, about 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on Earth at the time and his accomplishment earned him the Nobel Prize in 1913.[23] Kamerlingh Onnes would continue to written report the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute goose egg, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time.

Very low temperatures [edit]

The rapid expansion of gases leaving the Boomerang Nebula, a bi-polar, filamentary, likely proto-planetary nebula in Centaurus, has a temperature of 1 G, the lowest observed outside of a laboratory.

The boilerplate temperature of the universe today is approximately two.73 kelvins (−454.76 °F), or nigh -270.42 degrees celsius, based on measurements of cosmic microwave groundwork radiation.[24] [25]

Absolute zero cannot be achieved, although information technology is possible to accomplish temperatures shut to it through the employ of cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators,[26] and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures of less than a billionth of a kelvin.[27] At very depression temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation. To report such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures.

  • In Nov 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab in Espoo, Finland. However, this was the temperature of 1 particular degree of freedom—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom.[28] [29]
  • In Feb 2003, the Boomerang Nebula was observed to take been releasing gases at a speed of 500,000 km/h (310,000 mph) for the last one,500 years. This has cooled information technology down to approximately i G, as deduced by astronomical observation, which is the everyman natural temperature ever recorded.[30]
  • In May 2005, the European Infinite Bureau proposed research in space to attain femtokelvin temperatures.[31]
  • In May 2006, the Found of Breakthrough Optics at the University of Hannover gave details of technologies and benefits of femtokelvin research in infinite.[32]
  • In Jan 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to take accomplished temperatures formally below absolute zero ("negative temperature") in gases. The gas is artificially forced out of equilibrium into a high potential energy state, which is, however, cold. When information technology and so emits radiation it approaches the equilibrium, and can go on emitting despite reaching formal absolute zero; thus, the temperature is formally negative.[33]
  • In September 2014, scientists in the CUORE collaboration at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to 0.006 kelvins (−273.144 °C; −459.659 °F) for fifteen days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a big contiguous volume.[34]
  • In June 2015, experimental physicists at MIT cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvin, and it is expected to showroom an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules somewhat further.[35]
  • In 2017, Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL), an experimental instrument was adult for launch to the International Infinite Station (ISS) in 2018.[36] The instrument has created extremely common cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose–Einstein condensates. In this infinite-based laboratory, temperatures every bit low every bit one picokelvin ( 10 − 12 {\displaystyle 10^{-12}} Grand) temperatures are projected to be achievable, and information technology could further the exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most primal laws of physics.[37] [38]
  • The current world record for effective temperatures was ready in 2021 at 38 picokelvin (pK), or 0.000000000038 of a kelvin, through affair-wave lensing of rubidium Bose–Einstein condensates.[39]

See also [edit]

  • Charles'southward police
  • Oestrus
  • International Temperature Scale of 1990
  • Orders of magnitude (temperature)
  • Thermodynamic temperature
  • Triple signal
  • Ultracold atom
  • Kinetic energy
  • Entropy

References [edit]

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  2. ^ Arora, C. P. (2001). Thermodynamics. Tata McGraw-Hill. Tabular array 2.iv folio 43. ISBN978-0-07-462014-4.
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  10. ^ Leanhardt, A. E.; Pasquini, TA; Saba, M; Schirotzek, A; Shin, Y; Kielpinski, D; Pritchard, DE; Ketterle, Westward (2003). "Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin" (PDF). Scientific discipline. 301 (5639): 1513–1515. Bibcode:2003Sci...301.1513L. doi:10.1126/science.1088827. PMID 12970559. S2CID 30259606.
  11. ^ a b Chase, Scott. "Below Absolute Cypher -What Does Negative Temperature Mean?". The Physics and Relativity FAQ. Archived from the original on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
  12. ^ Merali, Zeeya (2013). "Quantum gas goes below absolute zero". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.12146. S2CID 124101032.
  13. ^ Stanford, John Frederick (1892). The Stanford Lexicon of Anglicised Words and Phrases.
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  17. ^ Essays Medical and Philosophical, p. PA291, at Google Books
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  20. ^ Newcomb, Simon (1906), A Compendium of Spherical Astronomy, New York: The Macmillan Company, p. 175, OCLC 64423127
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  27. ^ Catchpole, Heather (4 September 2008). "Cosmos Online – Verging on absolute zero". Archived from the original on 22 November 2008.
  28. ^ Knuuttila, Tauno (2000). Nuclear Magnetism and Superconductivity in Rhodium. Espoo, Finland: Helsinki University of Applied science. ISBN978-951-22-5208-4. Archived from the original on 28 April 2001. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
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  30. ^ Sahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997). "The Boomerang Nebula: The Coldest Region of the Universe?". The Astrophysical Journal. 487 (two): L155–L159. Bibcode:1997ApJ...487L.155S. doi:10.1086/310897. hdl:2014/22450.
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  34. ^ "CUORE: The Coldest Center in the Known Universe". INFN Press Release. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
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Farther reading [edit]

  • Herbert B. Callen (1960). "Chapter 10". Thermodynamics . New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-471-13035-2. OCLC 535083.
  • Herbert B. Callen (1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics (Second ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-471-86256-7.
  • E.A. Guggenheim (1967). Thermodynamics: An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists (5th ed.). Amsterdam: North The netherlands Publishing. ISBN978-0-444-86951-7. OCLC 324553.
  • George Stanley Rushbrooke (1949). Introduction to Statistical Mechanics. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 531928.
  • BIPM Mise en pratique - Kelvin - Appendix ii - SI Brochure

External links [edit]

  • "Absolute cypher": a ii part NOVA episode originally aired January 2008
  • "What is absolute nix?" Lansing Country Journal

alngindabubabsizarly.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero